Basic About Leaves : Classification

Leaves are borne on a stem in a definite fixed order, or phyllotaxy, according to species . For identification purposes, leaves are classified according to type and shape, and types of margins , tips and bases , and venation . 

Leaf arrangement. (a) Helical (top view). (b) Helical with elongated internodes (alternate). (c) Opposite (decussate). (d) Whorled (verticillate).

Leaf types. (a) Simple. (b) Trifoliate. (c) Palmately compound. (d) Odd-pinnately compound. (e) Even-pinnately compound. (f) Decompound.

Leaf shapes. (a) Linear. (b) Lanceolate. (c) Oblanceolate. (d) Spatulate. (e) Ovate. (f) Obovate. (g) Elliptic. (h) Oblong. (i) Deltoid. (j) Reniform. (k) Orbicular. (l) Peltate. (m) Perfoliate. (n) Connate.

Leaf margins of various types. (a) Entire. (b) Serrate. (c) Serrulate. (d) Dentate. (e) Denticulate. (f) Crenate. (g) Undulate. (h) Incised. (i) Pinnatifid. (j) Dissected. (k) Lobed. (l) Cleft. (m) Parted.

Leaf tips and bases. (a) Acuminate. (b) Acute. (c) Obtuse. (d) Truncate. (e) Emarginate. (f) Mucronate. (g) Cuspidate. (h) Cuneate. (i) Oblique. (j) Cordate. (k) Auriculate. (l) Sagittate. (m) Hastate. (n) Clasping.

Leaf venation. (a) Dichotomous. (b) Pinnate reticulate. (c) Palmate reticulate. (d) Parallel (expanded leaf). (e) Parallel (linear leaf).

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Basic about Flower - Sexuality

Flower Sexuality

Plant Sexuality

Population Sexuality

Types of Fruits ( Botanical )

1. Simple fruit, fleshy ( develop from a simple or compound ovary with only one pistil ) :

· Berry

- develop from a single ovary, ovary ripens into edible pericarp.

- eg. Avocado, Barberry, Buah, Melaka, Current, Chili, Ciku, Eggplant, Elderberry, Gooseberry, Grape, Guava, Honeysuckle, Kiwi, Mayapple, Nannyberry, Oregon-grape, Pomegranate, Tomato, Sea-bcukthorn, Starfruit

Hesperidium

- modified berry

- eg. Orange, Kumquat, Lemon

Pepo

- modified berry

- eg. all Cucurbitaceae ( Cucumber, Pumpkin, Squash, Watermelon ), Passiflora, Carica

· Epigynous / False Berry

- an accessory fruit, developed from flowers with inferior ovary. some or all of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.

- eg. Banana, Blueberry, Cranberry

· Drupe

- develop from a single carpel, mostly from flowers with superior ovaries ; endocarp with seed inside, surrounded by fleshy mesocarp and endocarp

- eg. Coffee, Jujube, Longan, Lychee, Mango, Olive, most Palms ( Date, Oil Palm ), Pistachio, Rambutan, all Prunus ( Almond, Apricot, Cherry, Damson, Nectarine, Peach, Plum )

· Pome

- An accessory fruit developed from one or more carpels, surrounded by accessory tissue

- all Maloideae of Rosaceae ( Apple ), Pear 

2. Simple fruit, dry

a. Dehiscent

Capsule

- developed from two or more carpels

- eg. Brazil nut, Cotton, Durian, Lily, Orchid, Poppy.

Follicle

- developed from 1 carpel; many-seeded dry unilocular fruit

- eg. Larkspur, Magnolia, Banksia, Peony, Milkweed

Legume

- developed from a simple carpel ; fruits usually called a pod

- eg. Alfalfa, Clover, Peas, Beans, Lentils, Lupins, Mequited, Carob, Soy, Peanuts

Loment

- eg. member of genus Desmodium and Hedysarum of Fabaceae

Schizocarp

- developed from multiple carpels

- eg. members of Geranium

b. Indehiscent

Achne

- developed from a single carpel, contain a single seed that nearly fills the pericarp, but does not adhere to it.

- Eg. Buttercup, Buckwheat, Dandelion, Sunflower

Caryopsis

- developed from a single carpel, resembles an achene, except that in caryopsis the pericarp is fused with the thin seed coat

- eg. Corn, Rice, Wheat

Dry drupe

- sometime fibrous

- eg. Coconut

Nut

- developed from pistils with inferior ovaries ; ovary wall becomes very hard at maturity, seed remains unattached with the ovary wall.

- eg. members of family Fagales ( Chestnust, Hazel )

Samara

- winged achne

- eg. Maple

Shizocarp

- developed from multiple carpels

- eg. Carrot, member of genus Abutilon, Malva, Malvastrum, Sida

Silique

- fruits of 2 fused carpels that separated when ripe

- eg. many members of Brassicaceae family

3. Compound - Aggregate fruit

- aggregates of small, individual fruits, each fruitlets develop from a single flower with multiple carpels

- aggregate of achenes, eg. Strawberry

- aggregate of drupes, eg. Blackberry, Raspberry

- aggregate of samaras, eg. Tuliptree

- aggregate of capsules, eg. Sweet gum

- aggregate of follicles, eg. Magnolia

4. Compound - Multiple fruit

- aggregates of small, individual drupes. Each drupelets develop from a different flower, from a cluster of flowers
- eg. Cempedak,  Fig, Jakefruit ( Nangka ), Mulberries, Pineapple, ¿ Soursop, ¿ Nona, Noni

Basic about Flower - Ovary Position

A fruit is the ripened ovary or ovaries. The fruits of a plant are responsible for dispersing the seeds that contain the embryo and protecting the seeds as well. In many occasions, the fruit incorporates some surrounding tissues, or is dispersed with some non-fruit tissues.

Type of fruit also determined by the position of ovary within a flower.

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I. A superior ovary is an ovary attached to the receptacle above the attachment of other floral parts. A flower with this arrangement called hypogynous.

Examples are drupes and true berries.

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II. A half-inferior ovary is called perigynous, is surrounded by receptacle, has nearly equal portions of ovary above and below the insertion point.

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III. An inferior ovary lies below the attachment of other floral parts. It is also called epigynous.

Examples are orchids, Fuchsia, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, banana, some pomes type fruits

Basic about Flower - Pollination

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Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in plants, thereby enabling fertilization and sexual reproduction.

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Pollen may b transferred between plants via a number of vectors.

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Anemophily is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind. Eg. Grasses, conifers, sweet chestnuts, members of Juglandaceae family.

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Hydrophily is a fairly uncommon form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by the flower of waters. Eg. Posidonia australis, ribbonweed.

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Entomophily is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by insects, particularly bees, Lepidoptera, flies and beetles. Eg. Sunflower, orchid, cycad.

Melittophily refers to pollination by bees.

Cantharophily specifically refers to beetle pollination.

Myophily refers to pollination by flies feeds on nectar and pollen

Sapromyophily refers to pollination by flies attracted by plants emitting odoriferous scent.

Psycophily refers to pollination by butterflies.

Phaelaenophily refers to pollination by moths

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Zoophily refers to pollination by vertebrates.

Ornithophily is the pollination of flowering plants by birds. Eg. Babiana ringens, Heliconiaceae, Costaceae, Zingiberaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae, Bromeliaceae, Gesneriaceae, Lobeliaceae, etc.

Chiropterophily specifically refers to bat pollination. Eg. Durios

Pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination :

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Allogamy is a cross-pollination, occurs when pollen is delivered to a flower from a different plant. Allogamious plants normally have taller stamens than carpels.

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Autogamy is self-pollination, when pollen from same flower is delivered.

Geitonogamy is self-pollination, when pollen from flower of same individual transferred to another flower.

These plants normally have similar stamen and carpel lengths.

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Cleistogamy is self-pollination that occurs before flower opens. Eg. Peanut, peas, beans, grasses, Viola.

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Chasmogamy refers to flowers that opens and exposes the stamens and styles to the environment. Thus encourage cross-pollination

Basic about Flower - Symmetry

Floral symmetry refers to whether, and how, a flower can be divided into 2 or more identical or mirror-image parts.

Most flowers are actinomorphic, meaning they can be divided into symmetrical halves by more than one longitudinal plane passing through the axis. Examples are flowers of Liliaceae, Ranunculaceae.

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However, some familiar and seemingly actinomorphic flowers, such as those from Asteraceae, are actually clusters of tiny zygomorphic flowers arranged into a radially symmetric inflorescence.

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Zygomorphic flowers can be divided by only a single plane into 2 mirror-image halves. Examples are flowers of Zingiberales, Lamiales ( Scorphulariaceae, Gesneriaceae )

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Actinomorphic flowers are basal angiosperm character ; zygomorphic flowers are a derived character that has evolved many times.

Basic about Flower - Morphology

Peduncle = terminal offshoot of the stem or twig ; it first connects the flower, then the fruit, to the plant

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Receptacle = enlarged portion of the peduncle containing and supporting the other parts of the flower.

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Sepal = usually green part of the flower that protects the flower’s internal structures ; it may fall after flowering occurs or remain until the fruit has ripened.

Calyx = part of the flower composed of all its sepals.

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Petal = usually colourful and scented part of the flower that surrounds the male and female reproductive organs ; it often helps attract pollinators.

Corolla = part of the flower composed of all its petals

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Pistil = each of the female floral organs at the flower’s center, consisting of an ovary, a stylus and a stigma.

Stigma = upper part of the female floral organ ( pistil ) that receives and holds pollen.

Style = cylindrical axis connecting the stigma to the ovary.

Ovary = hollow structure containing one or more ovules ; the fruit usually develops from it after fertilization.

Ovule = small rounded structure produced by the ovary and containing the female cell ; after fertilization, the seed develops from it.

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Stamen = each of the male floral organs, consisting of a filament and an anther.

Anther = upper part of the male floral organ ( stamen ) that produces pollen grains ; at maturity, it splits to release them.

Filament = cylindrical axis connecting the anther to the rest of the flower