WEST-meet-EAST 茄

茄，常称茄子，广东人称为矮瓜，江浙人称为落苏。梵语称之为vātiga-gama，阿拉伯语为al-baðinjān 、波斯语为bâdenjân，希腊语为μελιτζάνα。在它的原产地印度名为Brinjal，马来群岛为terong。欧美等国名称各异：aubergine (法国)，albechigo (西班牙)， beringela (葡萄牙)，melanzana (意大利)，eggplant (美国，澳洲)， melongene、meloongen (Caribbean)。

茄子学名Solanum melongena，属茄科一年生草本或半灌木植物。花紫色。果紫色或紫黑色，也有淡绿色或白色品种。形状有圆、椭圆、长形等。

茄子源产于印度，公元4-5世纪传入中国。宋代称为落苏。元代培养出长形茄子。清朝末年，长茄被引入日本。13世纪，茄子由中东传入地中沿岸。约16世纪，方传入欧洲。

茄子含有丰富的蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、维生素P、钙、磷、铁等。不可生吃，亦不宜长时间高温烹调。

番茄，别名西红柿、洋柿子、古名六月柿、喜报三元。南美阿兹特克人 (Aztec) 称之为 xitomatl, 演变成今日tomato一词。

番茄学名 Lycopersicum esculentum，属茄科一年生或多年生草本植物。花黄色。果未熟时青色，熟时橙黄或鲜红色。形球状或扁球状。肉质多汁。

番茄源于南美秘鲁 (Peru) 高原。当地原著民采番茄叶入药。不过绿叶有毒，常导致食物中毒，以至人们对它色泽妖艳的果子敬而远之。15世纪，西班牙发现新大陆，把番茄引入欧洲。17世纪，已有以番茄为菜肴 ，而在意大利成了意大利面的主要食材。西班牙人也把番茄引入菲律宾，再由此传入亚洲各地。

番茄含有丰富的胡萝卜素、维生素C和B族维生素。生吃能补充维生素C，熟食能补充抗氧化剂。盛夏清暑热，把番茄当水果生吃为佳。烹调番茄时不宜长时高温加热，因红萝卜素遇热容易分解，失去营养。

不过脾胃虚寒及月经期间的妇女不宜生吃番茄。未成熟的青色番茄含有毒龙癸碱，味苦涩，多食可导致中毒，出现头晕、恶心、周身不适、呕吐、全身疲乏，甚至死亡。亦不宜空腹食用，可导致腹痛、胃不适、胃胀痛。

WEST-meet-EAST 石榴

石榴，别名安石榴、海榴、pomegranate (英文)、delima (马来)。学名 Punica granatum，属石榴科 ( Punicaceae )，于温带属落叶灌木，在热带成常绿树。果皮朱红色，亦有黄色和白色，球形。肉质半透明，多汁。含多维生素C，B族维生素。

原产中东。相传是西汉 (约100BC)  时由张骞从西域安国和石国 ( 今Uzbekistan的Buxoro和Toshkent )  引入中国，故名安石果。唐•《藝文類聚》引西晋陸機《與弟雲書》：「張騫為漢使外國十八年．得塗林，安熟榴也。」

石榴全身是宝，果皮、根、花皆可入药。性温，味甘、涩、酸， 无毒。具有生津止渴，杀虫、收敛、涩肠、止痢等功效。

番石榴，别名鸡屎果、鸡屎拔、翻桃子、番桃、番稔、番鬼子、林拔、拔子、椰拔、木八子、芭乐、guava (英文), jambu batu (马来) 等。学名Psidium guajava，属桃金娘科 ( Myrtaceae )，是常绿小乔木。果皮翠绿至朱红，圆或椭圆形，多耔。果肉未熟脆口，乳白色。熟果肉质细嫩，色乳白至朱红。含多维生素C，钾，铁，胡萝卜素。

原产美洲热带。16世纪传播至世界各热带及亚热带地区。约17世纪传入中国。

番石榴性温，味甘、涩、酸， 无毒。 具有止泻，止血，止痒的功效。多食便秘 ，不宜多吃。

Chrysopogon zizanioides - vetiver grass

Vetiver grass, is Chrysopogon zizanioides, formerly known as Vetiveria zizanioides, is a perennial grass of Andropogoneae tribe of the Poaceae family.  The Andropogoneae tribe also include the infamous corn ( Zea ), lallang ( Imperata ), lemongrass ( Cymbopogon ), Job’s tears ( Coix ), sugarcane ( Sacharum ), sorghum ( Sorghum ), etc.  Thus it is not surprise vetiver resembles lemongrass in many morphological characteristics.  All member of this tribe utilize C4 carbon fixation in photosynthesis. 

In its origin Indian Subcontinent,  it is known as khus ( Hindi ), Valo ( Gujarati, Marathi ), Kuruveeru ( Telugu ), Vattiver ( Tamil ), Ramaccham ( Malyalam ), etc.

Vetiver can grow up to 1.5 meters in height and form clumps as wide.  The flowers are brownish-purple.  Its root grow vertically downward, up to 4 meter in depth.  Vetiver is frost and fire resistant, drought tolerant, and can sustain heavy grazing.

Most commercially grown vetiver are sterile.  They propagate via producing small offsets from stems.  Thus they are non-invasive and can be easily controlled.  One widely cultivated non-fertile cultigen is ‘Sunshine’, a genotype named after the town of Sunshine, Louisiana, USA.

Vetiver is widely cultivated in the tropical regions of the world.  The world’s major producers are : Haiti, India, Java and Réunion.   It is grown for many different purposes.  Its vertically grown roots make it an excellent stabilizing hedge for stream banks, terraces, and slopes.  Vetiver attracts pest, such as stem borer ( Chilo partellus ), to lay their eggs on vetiver, instead of on crop.  However, the mainly purpose for vetiver cultivation is for its essential oil distilled from its roots, to be used in perfumery industry.  The leaves, as a by-product, are feed to cattle, goats, sheep and horses.  The roots are also used in traditional medicine, as air freshener, to make ropes, and mixed with mud to make bricks for building houses, and to mark boundary lines.

Vetiver Seedlings - HumiVeti @ HumiBox

Vetiver seedlings are grown in BX1-50 Plug Tray with peat moss as media

Vetiver seedlings packed and delivered in box of 200

Ongrizinal Lorry Low-Loader

1-tonne tipper lorry is a very useful machine for a urban landscaper like myself, working within a township.  It is easy to maneuver, cheap to maintain and very fuel economic too.   Yet, it still has limitation.

I hope it have a detachable trailer.  The trailer should not be too high from ground level, light yet durable, and can easily fit into lorry’s back carriage ( to carry to other sites ).

But, in reality, it don’t have a trailer.  Can’t even find one in the market!  So, I improvised.

First, I put 2 holes on one end of a 4’ x 8’ x 12mm plywood, 

then pass a rope through the holes. 

The plywood is place on ground and cow grass is unloaded onto it, 

from supplier’s 10-tonne tipper lorry.  

If the trailer is too high from the ground, 

unloading from 10-tonne tipper lorry would be a hassle, 

maybe even impossible.

Previously, the grass was unloaded on ground,  

and workers had to manually uploaded them onto 1-tonne lorry, 

to send to designated planting areas.  

The double-handling was a waste of time and energy.

Then the rope is then secured to the rear of 1-tonne lorry.

As the lorry pull the plywood, 

workers unload the grass on designated areas.   

It is a bit hard to pull due to the friction and the weight of the grass.

The plywood will surely damaged after the task. 

If only the plywood is attached to a metal frame with wheels.

A whole-day task completed in 2 hours !   

Jewels of Sg Chiling Fish Sanctuary

Sg Chiling Fish Sanctuary is located in Sg Chiling Recreational Forest, Hulu Selangor.  It is accessible by road en-route from Kuala Kubu Bahru to Frasher’s Hill.  Sg Chiling is  gazette under Forestry Department, yet managed by the Fishery Department.

Tor tambroides

As the name suggested, Sg Chiling is a safe-heaven for Malayan mahseer ( Tor tambroides ), locally known as kelah.  Here, the kelah are mostly juvenile, swimming upstream against the rapid.  In the market, kelah fetches very handsomely, due to scarcity and its fine texture.   Its population is critically endangered due to overfishing, habitat loss, and pollution.

Kelah lives in rivers and lakes, ascending to rapid stream for breeding.  They are omnivores, eating small crustaceans, insects, frogs, and also fruits and algae.

Trogonoptera brookiana

It is not difficult to spot a Rajah Brooke's Birdwing butterfly here, at least once throughout the journey.   Yet impossible to photograph.


Rajah Brooke’s Birdwing butterfly ( Trogonoptera brookiana ) is named by Alfred R. Wallace in 1855, after James Brooke, the first White Rajah of Sarawak.   Rajah Brooke’s Birdwing is  a protected insects in Peninsular Malaysia ( Protection of Wildlife Act, 1972 ( Act 76 ) ), Sarawak ( Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1998 ( Chapter 26 ) ), and Sabah ( Wildlife Conservation Enactment , 1997 ).

Nepenthes ampullaria

Nepenthes gracilis

Nepenthes are found along the trail, thriving where sunlight are more abundant, especially right after the suspension bridge, long before the first river crossing.  There are two types of Nepenthes I spotted along the way, perhaps more.  N. gracilis is a common type, a climber with a slender green cups among the paku resam ( Gleichenia linearis ).   N. ampullaria has a smaller, shorter cups with red-brown spot, with cups grow closely together on the ground, hidden beneath the shrubs, thus more difficult to spot.


Nepenthes are popularly known as pitcher plants, monkey cup, or periuk kera in Malay.  They are a genus of carnivorous plants in the monotypic family Nepenthaceae.  Nepenthes are native to the Malay Archipelago.

All Nepenthes are protected in Sarawak ( Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1998 ( Chapter 26 ) ), and Sabah ( Wildlife Conservation Enactment , 1997 ). 

Photosynthesis : a Brief Introduction

Photosynthesis 光合作用 is from the Greek word φώτο [photo] "light" and σύνθεσις [synthesis] “putting together”.  It is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, using the energy from sunlight.

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Chloroplast

In plants and algae, photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts.  A typical plant cell contains about 10-100 chloroplasts.

The chloroplasts is enclosed by a phospholipid membrane.

Within the membrane is an aqueous fluid ‘stroma’.

The stroma contains flattened discs ‘thylakoids’. 

Liquid bounded within thyakoid membrane is ‘lumen’.

Stacks of thylakoids are ‘granum’ (singular), ‘grana’ (plural).

Grana are connected by ‘lamellae’.

Thylakoid membranes contains light-harvesting-proteins : ‘photosystem I – P700’ & ‘photosystem II – P680’

Thylakoid membranes also contains : electron transport chain ‘cytochrome b6f complex’ and ATP synthase ‘CF1FO-ATP’.

Thylakoids are the site of light-dependent reactions.

Stroma is the site of light-independent reactions.

Photosynthetic pigments

Pigments are chemical compounds which reflect only certain wavelength of visible light.

Chlorophylls are greenish pigments which contain a porphyrin ring. 

Chlorophyll-a, found in all plants, algae and cyanobacteria.

Chlorophyll-b, found in plants and algae.

Chlorophyll-c, found in chromista and dinoflagellates.

Carotenoids

Carotene, an orange pigment.

Xanthophyll, a yellow pigment

Phaeophytin-a, a gray-brown pigment.

Phaeophytin-b, a yellow-brown pigment.

Bacteriochlorophylls are greenish pigments, found in Protobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria, Chloroflexi, and Heliobacteria.

Phycobiliproteins

Phycocyanin, a light blue accessory pigment, found in Cynobacteria.

Phycocyanin, a light blue accessory pigment, found in Cyanobacteria.

Allophycocyanin, a blue accessory pigment, found in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta.

Phycoerythrocyanin, a magenta accessory pigment, found in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta.

Fucoxanthin, a brown pigment, found in brown algae, diatoms and kelps.

Phycoerythrin, red pigment, found in Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta and Cryptomonads.

Phycobilins, are red/blue pigments, found in Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, Cryptomonads and Glaucophtes.

Order & Kinetics

The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in 4 stages:

1. absorption of light

2. transport of electrons

3. synthesis of ATP

4. fixation of carbon

Reactions in stage 1, 2 & 3 are dependent of light energy, thus are called light dependent reactions. 

Reactions in stage 4 are indirectly dependent on light energy, thus called light-independent reactions or dark reactions.  However, in contrary to its name, dark reactions are not confined to the dark nor are they totally independent from light.  Still, CAM plants’ dark reactions do happen at night.

1. Absorption of light  ( Hill Reaction & Photolysis )

Site : Thylakoid membrane

photons + P680 → P680* → P680⁺  + e

2 H₂O + 4 P680⁺ → 4 H⁺ + O₂ ( to atmosphere )+ 4 P680

- O₂ is released to the atmosphere

- 4 H⁺ (proton) enter photophosphorylation to form ATP

- 4 e^- exit photosystem II, enter photosystem I via a electron transfer chain

2. Transport of electrons ( z-sheme )

Site : Thylakoid membrane 

Electron transport chain PS2 :( Pheo – PQ – b6f – Pc – PS1 )

Electron transport chain PS1 : ( Rd – FNR )

Site : Chloroplast stroma : NADP⁺ + 2 H⁺ + 2 e^-  → NADPH + H⁺

Overall reaction of stage 1 & 2 : 2 H₂O + NADP⁺ → 2 H⁺ + O₂ + 2 NADPH

3. ATP synthesis ( photophosphorilation )

Site : Thylakoid membrane

- 4 e^-  transport via b6f synthesis ATP to pump  H⁺ from stroma into lumen.

- Extra H⁺ inside lumen creates a gradient, resulting in H⁺ flow back via F₀F₁ complex out to stroma, creating another ATP.

4. Fixation of carbon ( Calvin Cycle )

Site : Stroma

- carbon is  fixed into organic matter with the help of ATP and NAPDH from the light reactions.

6 CO₂ + 18 ATP^4- + 12 NAPDH + 12 H₂O  → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 18 ADP^3- + 18P_i^2- + 12 NADP⁺ + 6 H⁺