Types of Fruits ( Botanical )

1. Simple fruit, fleshy ( develop from a simple or compound ovary with only one pistil ) :

· Berry

- develop from a single ovary, ovary ripens into edible pericarp.

- eg. Avocado, Barberry, Buah, Melaka, Current, Chili, Ciku, Eggplant, Elderberry, Gooseberry, Grape, Guava, Honeysuckle, Kiwi, Mayapple, Nannyberry, Oregon-grape, Pomegranate, Tomato, Sea-bcukthorn, Starfruit

Hesperidium

- modified berry

- eg. Orange, Kumquat, Lemon

Pepo

- modified berry

- eg. all Cucurbitaceae ( Cucumber, Pumpkin, Squash, Watermelon ), Passiflora, Carica

· Epigynous / False Berry

- an accessory fruit, developed from flowers with inferior ovary. some or all of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.

- eg. Banana, Blueberry, Cranberry

· Drupe

- develop from a single carpel, mostly from flowers with superior ovaries ; endocarp with seed inside, surrounded by fleshy mesocarp and endocarp

- eg. Coffee, Jujube, Longan, Lychee, Mango, Olive, most Palms ( Date, Oil Palm ), Pistachio, Rambutan, all Prunus ( Almond, Apricot, Cherry, Damson, Nectarine, Peach, Plum )

· Pome

- An accessory fruit developed from one or more carpels, surrounded by accessory tissue

- all Maloideae of Rosaceae ( Apple ), Pear 

2. Simple fruit, dry

a. Dehiscent

Capsule

- developed from two or more carpels

- eg. Brazil nut, Cotton, Durian, Lily, Orchid, Poppy.

Follicle

- developed from 1 carpel; many-seeded dry unilocular fruit

- eg. Larkspur, Magnolia, Banksia, Peony, Milkweed

Legume

- developed from a simple carpel ; fruits usually called a pod

- eg. Alfalfa, Clover, Peas, Beans, Lentils, Lupins, Mequited, Carob, Soy, Peanuts

Loment

- eg. member of genus Desmodium and Hedysarum of Fabaceae

Schizocarp

- developed from multiple carpels

- eg. members of Geranium

b. Indehiscent

Achne

- developed from a single carpel, contain a single seed that nearly fills the pericarp, but does not adhere to it.

- Eg. Buttercup, Buckwheat, Dandelion, Sunflower

Caryopsis

- developed from a single carpel, resembles an achene, except that in caryopsis the pericarp is fused with the thin seed coat

- eg. Corn, Rice, Wheat

Dry drupe

- sometime fibrous

- eg. Coconut

Nut

- developed from pistils with inferior ovaries ; ovary wall becomes very hard at maturity, seed remains unattached with the ovary wall.

- eg. members of family Fagales ( Chestnust, Hazel )

Samara

- winged achne

- eg. Maple

Shizocarp

- developed from multiple carpels

- eg. Carrot, member of genus Abutilon, Malva, Malvastrum, Sida

Silique

- fruits of 2 fused carpels that separated when ripe

- eg. many members of Brassicaceae family

3. Compound - Aggregate fruit

- aggregates of small, individual fruits, each fruitlets develop from a single flower with multiple carpels

- aggregate of achenes, eg. Strawberry

- aggregate of drupes, eg. Blackberry, Raspberry

- aggregate of samaras, eg. Tuliptree

- aggregate of capsules, eg. Sweet gum

- aggregate of follicles, eg. Magnolia

4. Compound - Multiple fruit

- aggregates of small, individual drupes. Each drupelets develop from a different flower, from a cluster of flowers
- eg. Cempedak,  Fig, Jakefruit ( Nangka ), Mulberries, Pineapple, ¿ Soursop, ¿ Nona, Noni

Plant Propagation - Asexual

1. Cuttings / Striking ( Keratan )

1a. stem cuttings

1b. leaf cuttings

1c. root cuttings

2. Layering ( Tut )

2a. air layering / marcotting

2b. ground layering

3. Grafting ( Cantuman )

3a. approach ( cantuman sandingan )

3b. budding ( cantuman mata tunas )

3C. cleft ( cantuman belahan baji )

4. Storage organs

4a. Bulbs ( underground vertical shoots that has modified leaes )

- Onion, Garlic, Lily, memebers of the Alliaceae & Liliaceae family, etc

4b. Corms ( short, vertical, swollen underground stem )

- Arrowhead, Asparagus and other members of the Asparagales family, Banana and allies, Crocus, Water chestnut, Yam, members of the Araceae family, etc

4c. Tubers ( thickend part of a rhizome or stolon )

- Cassava, Potato

4d. Rhizomes ( creeping, horizontal, underground main stem )

- Ginger

4e. Stolons / Rnners ( surface/under-ground-surface stem, sprouts from an existing stem, has long internodes, generates new shoots at the end 0f the tip

- Cyperus, Grasses, Strawberry

5. Divison ( Belahan )

6. Micropropagation / Tissue Culture

歲寒三友

歲寒三友，指松、竹、梅三種植物。因這三種植物在寒冬時節仍可保持頑強的生命力而得名，是中國傳統文化中高尚人格的象徵，傳到日本後又加上長壽的意義。

松和竹在嚴寒中不落葉，梅在寒冬裡開花，有「清廉潔白」節操的意思，是古代文人的理想人格。日本平安時代由中國傳入松竹梅，江戶時代起又有吉祥的意義。

中國宋朝時，歲寒三友常作為文人畫、水墨畫的題材，如文同、蘇軾的作品。元朝、明朝的陶瓷器也常有松竹梅的圖案。日本的陶瓷器、漆器、織染也常用松竹梅圖案，常用於門松、女兒節人形等節日裝飾以及添丁、婚禮等喜慶事上面，常與鶴龜之類的主題一起用。

位於日本東京都的天皇皇宮的正殿有三間廳堂，分別稱「松之殿」、「竹之殿」和「梅之殿」。其中，松之殿級別最高，是日本皇室進行正規儀式的場所。另外，在日本的壽司店中，往往也以「松竹梅」表示壽司拼盤的檔次規格。同樣，松往往是最高規格的代名詞。

松 （family : Pinaceae - genus : Pinus ）
其实松和竹是四季常青的，只有梅到了冬天才分外精神。三位朋友以松为首。因为它从南到北分布最广，大片的松林可以形成“朔风吹，林涛吼，峡谷震荡”震撼人心的听觉效果。孤松又可以在山巅上凌空独立，形成“暮色苍茫看劲松，乱云飞渡仍从容”的视觉奇观。

竹 ( family : Poaceae – subfamily : Bambusoideae )
竹是高雅、纯洁、虚心、有节的象征，古今庭园几乎无园不竹，居而有竹，则幽簧拂窗，清气满院；竹影婆娑，姿态入画，碧叶经冬不凋，清秀而又潇洒。古往今来，“不可一日无此君”已成了众多文人雅士的偏好。

梅 ( family : Rosaceae – Prunus mume )
梅花为中国传统十大名花之一，姿、色、香、韵俱佳。宋人林和靖的诗句“疏影横斜水清浅，暗香浮动月黄昏”，将梅花的姿容、神韵描绘得淋漓尽致。漫天飞雪之际，独有梅花笑傲严寒，破蕊怒放，这是何等的可爱、可贵！
　　同时也象征着人卓而不群,超凡脱俗的品格.

四君子

四君子是中国画的传统题材，以梅、兰、竹、菊谓四君子。

明代黄凤池辑有《梅竹兰菊四谱》，从此，梅兰竹菊被称为“四君”。画家用“四君子”来标榜君子的清高品德。《集雅蔡梅竹兰菊四谱小引》：“文房清供，独取梅、竹、兰、菊四君者无他，则以其幽芳逸致，偏能涤人之秽肠而澄莹其神骨”。明万历年间黄凤池还辑有《梅竹兰菊四谱》，一般均借“四君子”来表现正直、虚心、纯洁而有气节的思想感情。各种形式的四君子图案纹样，一直流传到现在。

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　　梅，剪雪裁冰，一身傲骨

　　兰，空谷幽香，孤芳自赏

　　竹，筛风弄月，潇洒一生

　　菊，凌霜自行，不趋炎势

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据画史记载，南北朝已经有人画梅花，到了北宋，画梅就成了一种风气，最有名的是仲仁和尚，他创墨梅，画梅全不用颜色，只用水墨深浅来加以表现。据说他看到月光把梅花映照在窗纸上的影子，从中得到了启发，便创作出用浓谈相间的水墨晕染而成的墨梅。此后，杨补之在这种基础上又进一步发展了这种画法。创造出一种双勾法来画梅花，使梅花纯洁高雅，野趣盎然。元明以来，用梅花作画更多。元代最大的画梅大师应该首推王冕，他自号梅花屋主，他的水墨梅画一变宋人稀疏冷倚之习，而为繁花密蕊，给人以热烈蓬勃向上之感。王冕的存世名作，是他的一幅《墨梅图》他用单纯的水墨和清淡野逸的笔致，生动地传达出了梅花的清肌傲骨，寄托了文人雅士孤高傲岸的情怀。明清的画梅者举不胜举，如刘世儒、石涛、金农、汪士慎等，从风格来看，他们大体继承了宋人的疏冷和元人的繁密两种画风。

画梅人还必须有画梅人的品格，有人称之为“梅气骨”，一种高尚的情操和洁身自好的品格，正所谓：“画梅须有梅气骨，人与梅花一样清。”

..

人们画兰花，一般都寄托一种幽芳高洁的情操。如楚国诗人屈原就以“秋兰兮清清，绿叶兮紫茎，满堂兮美人”这样的诗句来咏兰。但兰花入画则比梅花晚，大概始于唐代。到了宋朝，画兰花的人便多了起来，据说苏轼就曾画过兰花，而且花中还夹杂有荆棘，寓意君子能容小人。南宋初，人们常以画兰花来表示一种宋邦沦覆之后不随世浮沉的气节，当时的赵孟坚和郑思肖，被同称为墨兰大家。元代以郑所南画兰花最为著名，寓意也最为明确。据说他坐必向南，以示怀念先朝，耻作元朝贰臣；他画的兰花，从不画根，就像飘浮在空中的一样，因：“国土已被番人夺去，我岂肯着地？”。欣赏绘画，也是必须了解历史背景的。而清人画兰，则以“扬州八怪”之一的郑板桥最为著名的了。郑板桥是一个注重师法自然的人，他画过盆兰。但尤嗜好画“乱如蓬”的山中野兰，为此，他曾自种兰花数十盆，并常在三春之后将其移植到野石山阴之处，使其于来年发箭成长，观其挺然直上之状态，闻其浓郁纯正之香味，因而得山中兰“叶暖花酣气候浓”的贞美实质。

　　.

竹入画，大略和兰花相当，也始于唐代。唐代的皇帝唐玄宗、画家王维、吴道子等都喜画竹。据说到了五代，李夫人还创墨竹法，传说她常夜坐床头、见竹影婆娑映于窗纸上、乃循窗纸摹写而创此法。到宋代，苏轼发展了画竹的方法，放弃了以前的画家们的双勾着色法，而把枝干、叶均用水墨来画，深墨为叶面，淡墨为叶背。以后的元明清时代，画竹名家辈出，只要是山水或花鸟画家，没有不画竹的，而且开始强调竹的整体气势。不过，在众多的画家中，郑板桥的画竹也堪称为一绝。 郑板桥的作品，存世较多，流传也广，自清代以来，被世人行家所叹眼，成为“人争宝之”的珍品。

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菊花入画则稍晚，大略始于五代，比起梅兰竹来说，表现菊花的作品则相对要少得多。五代徐熙、黄筌都画过菊。宋人画菊者极少。元代苏明远、柯九思也有菊的作品。明清两代画菊的也不多。现有明代吴门画派中最享盛名的画家陈淳的一幅《菊石图》藏于首都博物愤，这是本来就较少的菊花作品中的珍品。 　　

五谷

五谷原是中国古代所称的五种谷物，后泛指粮食类作物，有“五谷丰登”的说法。其内容主要有两种。除了五谷外，还有六谷、九谷的说法，五谷说之所以占上风，可能和五行思想的兴盛有关。

五谷的说法，最早见于《论语》，在此前的《诗经》、《尚书》之中，只有“百谷”，而无“五谷”的提法。但对五谷究竟指哪五种作物，则出现在汉朝时的著作。

对五谷的内容，有两种说法。一种说法是稻、黍、稷（粟）、麦、菽（大豆）。而根据《大戴礼记》的记载，五谷是麻（大麻）、黍、稷、麦、菽。两种说法的差别在于，一种有稻而无麻，另一种有麻而无稻。两种说法结合起来，就得出了稻、黍、稷、麦、菽、麻六种作物。战国时代的名著《吕氏春秋》（公元前三世纪作品）里有四篇专门谈论农业的文章，其中“审时”篇谈论栽种禾（稷）、黍、稻、麻、菽、麦这六种作物的情况；“十二纪”篇中说到的作物，也是这六种。


禾 (稻米 Rice ) Oryza sativa
黍（黄米 Common millet ）Panicum miliaceum
稷（小米 Foxtail millet） Setalia italica
麦（小麦 Wheat ） Triticum aestivum
麦（大麦 Barley ） Hordeum vulgare
菽（大豆 Soybean ） Glycine max
麻（大麻 Cannabis ） Cannabis sativa

Basic about Flower - Floral formula

A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used:

Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca⁵ = 5 sepals)
Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co^3(x) = petals some multiple of three )
Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ⁶ = zygomorphic with 6 petals)
A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A^∞ = many stamens)
G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G¹ = monocarpous)

x: to represent a "variable number"
∞: to represent "many"

A floral formula would appear something like this:

Ca⁵Co⁵A^{10 - ∞}G¹

Basic about Flower - Ovary Position

A fruit is the ripened ovary or ovaries. The fruits of a plant are responsible for dispersing the seeds that contain the embryo and protecting the seeds as well. In many occasions, the fruit incorporates some surrounding tissues, or is dispersed with some non-fruit tissues.

Type of fruit also determined by the position of ovary within a flower.

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I. A superior ovary is an ovary attached to the receptacle above the attachment of other floral parts. A flower with this arrangement called hypogynous.

Examples are drupes and true berries.

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II. A half-inferior ovary is called perigynous, is surrounded by receptacle, has nearly equal portions of ovary above and below the insertion point.

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III. An inferior ovary lies below the attachment of other floral parts. It is also called epigynous.

Examples are orchids, Fuchsia, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, banana, some pomes type fruits